You do not to need to go to a mosque to be a good Muslim :: essays research papers

Religious Studies CourseworkYou do non to fill to go to a mosque to be a uncorrupted Moslem I personally agree with this statement that to be a redeeming(prenominal) Muslim you do not need to attend Mosque. A good Muslim is someone who follows the five pillars of Islam. The five pillars of Islam is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. these duties are Shahadah(profession of faith), Salat(ritual prayer), Zakat(alms giving), Sawm(fasting during the month of Ramadan) and Hajj(pilgrimage to Mecca). A good absolute make has four strong corner stones and good Muslims have five because they want to be strong in the way which they live. Muslims believe that Allah has requested that we must figure out on these pillars consistently. Nowadays a mosque facilitates the emergence of a city centre for most Muslims, offering services such as family support service, counseling clinic and shariah counsel besides many more . How ever the main purpose of a mosque is to perform Salah. I however argue that Muslims do not need to pray in a mosque to do this and what is important is that they carry out the obligatory five daily prayers, whether it is in their own house or some interpose else as long as it is a suitable environment. A mosque is called Masjid in Arabic the language of Islam. The word literally means ? ordinate of prostration? because strictly speaking a mosque is anywhere where a Muslim kneels mound to prostrate him/herself before Allah. A prayer mat laid down at home or even at the side of the road becomes a mosque-a place of prostration.The prophet Muhammad once said?Whenever the quantify of prayer overtakes you pray. That place is a mosque? I believe that the prophet Muhammad is agreeing that to be a good Muslim you do not need to attend mosque. A good Muslim prays to Allah and when the time comes to pray it doesn?t matter where you are , that place becomes your mosque as soon as you kneel down with the intention to pray.You do not to need to go to a mosque to be a good Muslim essays research papers Religious Studies CourseworkYou do not to need to go to a mosque to be a good Muslim I personally agree with this statement that to be a good Muslim you do not need to attend Mosque. A good Muslim is someone who follows the five pillars of Islam. The five pillars of Islam is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. these duties are Shahadah(profession of faith), Salat(ritual prayer), Zakat(alms giving), Sawm(fasting during the month of Ramadan) and Hajj(pilgrimage to Mecca). A good strong building has four strong corner stones and good Muslims have five because they want to be strong in the way which they live. Muslims believe that Allah has requested that we must act on these pillars consistently. Nowadays a mosque facilitates the emergence of a city centre for most Muslims, offering services such as family support service, counselling clinic and Shariah counsel besides many more . However the main purpose of a mosque is to perform Salah. I however argue that Muslims do not need to pray in a mosque to do this and what is important is that they carry out the obligatory five daily prayers, whether it is in their own house or somewhere else as long as it is a suitable environment. A mosque is called Masjid in Arabic the language of Islam. The word literally means ?Place of Prostration? because strictly speaking a mosque is anywhere where a Muslim kneels down to prostrate him/herself before Allah. A prayer mat laid down at home or even at the side of the road becomes a mosque-a place of prostration.The prophet Muhammad once said?Whenever the time of prayer overtakes you pray. That place is a mosque? I believe that the prophet Muhammad is agreeing that to be a good Muslim you do not need to attend mosque. A good Muslim prays to Allah and when the time comes to pray it doesn?t matter where you are , that place becomes your mosque as soon as you kneel down with the intention to pray.

Henry James :: essays research papers

Post-Civil War American Literature saw a transition from the prominence of romance to the development of realism. In the ripe 1800s, the United States was experiencing swift growth and change as a result of a changing economy, society, and culture because of an influx in the number of immigrants into America. (Spiller 35) Whereas authors previously seek to "idealize human beings, fall in love with a dream, and then, reject the real man or woman who had inspired the dream", they now worked to accurately portray purport and people as they really were. (Wagenknecht 68) Realists such as Henry crowd together and William Dean Howells, two of the most prolific writers of the nineteenth-century, used distinctive realistic methods to create an accurate depiction of changing American life& adenine9Henry James was one of five children of affulent, eccentric parents. period his birth in 1843 was in New York City, his parents were purposly rootless, and by the age of eighteen he had already crossed the Atlantic six times. He avoided p machinationicipation in the Civil War because of a poor back and began a role which he would maintain throughout his life and writings, one of a detached commentator rather than participant in the American social scene. (Matthiessen 14)&9The first phase of James writing begins when he is twenty-one, in 1864 and continues until 1881. He was extremely popular during this time, especially during after publication of a short story Daisy Miller, which is concerned with the destruction of a naive American girl by European mores. James continues the theme of placing Americans without sufficient social experience into the complex society and culture of Europe with The American, which chronicles a man whose finds himself unable to buy his way into French society. (Matthiessen 14)&9For Henry James, the years of 1882 to 1895 brought less success. His novels now took on a more political tone. (Matthiessen 15) In 1886, he published Th e Bostonians, regarding the feminist movement in New England. Here, "he complained that women who wanted to become just like men were disregarding their own uniqueness." (Norton 616) The Tragic Muse, published in 1890, continues this trend as it contrasts art with politics. After these works failed commerically , James turned to the British stage he found no greater success there. (Matthiessen 15) &9The period of James life recognized as the final phase, the one which Matthiessen calls the "Major Phase", revolves around three novels with which James assured himself a place in American Literature.

The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence :: essays research papers

The McMahon-Hussein agreement Israel, slightly larger than Massachusetts, lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is adjoin by Egypt on the west, Syria and Jordan on the east, and Lebanon on the conjugation. Its maritime plain is extremely fertile, but only 17% of the land is arable (Figure 1). The southern Negev region, which comprises almost half the total area, is largely a desert. The Jordan River flows from the north through Lake Hule and Lake Kinneret, finally entering the Dead Sea, 1,349 ft below sea level, the worlds lowest land elevation.In a time of war, it is far too palmy to get caught up in the violence, and forget that the true goal is peace. Hate, death, and pain make it difficult for the belligerent nations to deal rationally and come up with a plan to end the violence. This is why a third party is necessary. A third party sees the situation from an aliens viewpoint. Therefore, they are able to reach out better advice and rootages. This situatio n is applicable to the current Middle East Crisis. Palestine and Israel cannot come to a peaceful solution without the help of the international community. In order to help the feuding parties, the United States needs to be neutral, fair, and unbiased. The current leaders need to avoid the mistakes made by the historical leaders and nations that led to the escalation of the conflict, like McMahon-Hussein Correspondence did. The McMahon-Hussein correspondence is essentially a series of letters exchanged, in 1915, between Feisal Hussein, who was Sherif of Mecca at the time, and the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon (Khalidi 1980, 92). The British were willing to carry off with the Arabs because they needed military support during the First World War, and the Arabs could provide this support. In this correspondence, the British representative promised to Hussein that if the Arabs nauseate against the Turks, the British government would grant them independence. T he important controversy in McMahon-Hussein correspondence and the question of Palestine at large lies in the certain areas, that McMahon claimed cannot be verbalize to be purely Arab and should therefore be excluded from the proposed limits and boundaries, of the Arab state (Khalidi 1980,117). There is also an opinion that the correspondence at issue has no legal grounds, since it was never reason out in mutual agreement. The Arab community took the British promise seriously, and the events that took place only a couple of years after the series of letters were passed certainly wild the Arab population.The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence essays research papersThe McMahon-Hussein Correspondence Israel, slightly larger than Massachusetts, lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Egypt on the west, Syria and Jordan on the east, and Lebanon on the north. Its maritime plain is extremely fertile, but only 17% of the land is arable (Figure 1). The souther n Negev region, which comprises almost half the total area, is largely a desert. The Jordan River flows from the north through Lake Hule and Lake Kinneret, finally entering the Dead Sea, 1,349 ft below sea level, the worlds lowest land elevation.In a time of war, it is far too easy to get caught up in the violence, and forget that the true goal is peace. Hate, death, and pain make it difficult for the belligerent nations to think rationally and come up with a plan to end the violence. This is why a third party is necessary. A third party sees the situation from an outsiders viewpoint. Therefore, they are able to offer better advice and solutions. This situation is applicable to the current Middle East Crisis. Palestine and Israel cannot come to a peaceful solution without the help of the international community. In order to help the feuding parties, the United States needs to be neutral, fair, and unbiased. The current leaders need to avoid the mistakes made by the historical leader s and nations that led to the escalation of the conflict, like McMahon-Hussein Correspondence did. The McMahon-Hussein correspondence is essentially a series of letters exchanged, in 1915, between Feisal Hussein, who was Sherif of Mecca at the time, and the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon (Khalidi 1980, 92). The British were willing to negotiate with the Arabs because they needed military support during the First World War, and the Arabs could provide this support. In this correspondence, the British representative promised to Hussein that if the Arabs revolt against the Turks, the British government would grant them independence. The main controversy in McMahon-Hussein correspondence and the question of Palestine at large lies in the certain areas, that McMahon claimed cannot be said to be purely Arab and should therefore be excluded from the proposed limits and boundaries, of the Arab state (Khalidi 1980,117). There is also an opinion that the correspondence at issue has no legal grounds, since it was never concluded in mutual agreement. The Arab community took the British promise seriously, and the events that took place only a couple of years after the series of letters were passed certainly infuriated the Arab population.

Stress In The Workplace Essay examples -- Effects of Stress in the Wor

An increasing number of employers atomic number 18 becoming aware of the adverse affects that evince can have on an employees performance and are offering varied programs to help employees manage stress in their lives. This approach is proving to increase workplace performance, as well as improve employee loyalty and remembering in the long run. What Causes Stress? Causes and Concerns Stress has been defined as a physiologic reaction to uncomfortable or unaccustomed physical or psychological stimuli. The biological variations that can result from stress of the sympathetic nervous system include a heightened state of alertness, anxiety, rapid heart rate and sweating. Not surprisingly, everyone has different triggers that cause stress in their lives and according to a number of surveys, work related stress tops the list for most people. In fact, forty share of employees in the United States reported that they regularly experience work-related stress and a rising number of them are reporting that work is the largest stress in their lives. This is creating health and economic problems, not just for the American workforce but globally as well. Effects of Stress on Employees Physical and Emotional Individuals under stress at work have been known to experience fatigue and/or low motivation which can directly influence an organizations esprit de corps and decrease overall productivity. Any professional with an M.A. in Industrial Organizational Psychology will tell you that str...

The Future of Medical Science Is Now :: essays research papers

The advances in fresh medical science in the near future argon dependent upon the advances of methods and procedures that by todays standards are considered to be taboo and dangerous. These methods entrust not only revolutionize the field of medicine but they will be the forerunners to a whole knew way to treat people. For these advances to take place several key steps need to be taken both medically and politically. In this paper I will drive to explain what methods and procedures will be the future of modern medicine, how these methods and procedures can benefit mankind, and finally what changes will be needed in the fields of medicine and politics.First, Ill attempt to explain which methods and procedures will be the future of modern medicine. The procedures that will be the future of modern medicine currently fall into the realms of taboo and fictional. These procedures encompass every aspect of medical science from exploration of the human body, curing of diseases, to improv ing a mortals quality of life. Many of these procedures are not very well known while a few have been in the spotlight. These procedures are cloning, nano-robotics, retro-viruses, and contagious manipulation via gene-specific medications. For any unsafe breakthroughs in modern medical science we must embrace these new forms of treatment instead of shying away from them.Second, Ill attempt to explain how these methods and procedures could benefit mankind. These procedures hold infinite possibilities in the practice healing the sick. Of all of the procedures mentioned cloning is the only method that has been given any amount of serious research. Cloning could do away with the need for organ transplants. Instead of a transplant a new organ could be cloned, thus removing any ascertain that the body might reject the organs. Nano-robotics could be used to fight off foreign infections and repair internal wounds. Retro-viruses and gene-specific medications could be used to alter a pers ons genetic code, ridding a person of inherited maladies such as heart disease or diabetes. With the introduction of some, if not all, of these different methods of treating ailments we could effectively scrub out a large amount of diseases that would otherwise be untreatable. Senior citizens would no longer have to suffer from maladies such as Alzheimers or other such illnesses related with age. With these procedures a child can grow up never having to suffer from a learning disorder such as ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder) or even cases of mental retardation by eliminating or modifying the genes that are responsible for these and other problems.

The Future of Medical Science Is Now :: essays research papers

The advances in modern-day medical science in the near future be dependent upon the advances of methods and procedures that by todays standards are considered to be taboo and dangerous. These methods leave not only revolutionize the field of medicine but they will be the forerunners to a whole knew way to treat people. For these advances to take place several key steps need to be taken both medically and politically. In this paper I will strain to explain what methods and procedures will be the future of modern medicine, how these methods and procedures can benefit mankind, and finally what changes will be needed in the fields of medicine and politics.First, Ill attempt to explain which methods and procedures will be the future of modern medicine. The procedures that will be the future of modern medicine currently fall into the realms of taboo and fictional. These procedures encompass every aspect of medical science from exploration of the human body, curing of diseases, to impr oving a somebodys quality of life. Many of these procedures are not very well known while a few have been in the spotlight. These procedures are cloning, nano-robotics, retro-viruses, and transmittable manipulation via gene-specific medications. For any dependable breakthroughs in modern medical science we must embrace these new forms of treatment instead of shying away from them.Second, Ill attempt to explain how these methods and procedures could benefit mankind. These procedures hold infinite possibilities in the practice healing the sick. Of all of the procedures mentioned cloning is the only method that has been given any amount of serious research. Cloning could do away with the need for organ transplants. Instead of a transplant a new organ could be cloned, thus removing any pretend that the body might reject the organs. Nano-robotics could be used to fight off foreign infections and repair internal wounds. Retro-viruses and gene-specific medications could be used to alter a soulfulnesss genetic code, ridding a person of inherited maladies such as heart disease or diabetes. With the introduction of some, if not all, of these different methods of treating ailments we could effectively jump out a large amount of diseases that would otherwise be untreatable. Senior citizens would no longer have to suffer from maladies such as Alzheimers or other such illnesses related with age. With these procedures a child can grow up never having to suffer from a learning disorder such as ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder) or even cases of mental retardation by eliminating or modifying the genes that are responsible for these and other problems.

My Last Duchess Essay

In the Poem My Last Duchess by Robert browning the heartless and haughty speaker explains a film of his last wife while inadvertently revealing a darker side to his last marriage than one might view from they outside. The numbers depicts a deep stream of conscious feel to it by using language and sentence structure common to conversation earlier to the time period it was written. The use of twas non , and the English spelling of favour suggests the poem occurred in a time period in which husbands held power over their wives with such things as nine-hundred-years-old names and money.toastings great usage of dated speaking style bring ons a historical medium from which the take downt which slowly unfold. The poem is masked in a conversation with one psyche speaking in a dramatic monologue about his beloved portrait of the last duchess he married. The rhetorical questions Whod this sort of trifling and end rhymes in the couplets throughout the poem wall call and had glad drive t he poem from one line to the next . These techniques create motion in the poem much like the anger and arrogance that the Duke exerted towards his deceased wife to control her.The diction of this poem mirrors the force with which the Duke ruled his domicil as well as the social male norms at the time. The poem My Last Duchess is told from first point of view by a selfish homophile admiring his late wifes smiling portrait. As the Duke entertains his guest, you, he tells of My favour after contemplating how shall I say? that his wife flirted with all she encountered. The biased first somebody account of the death of the duchess leads the reader into the center of the mans thoughts and allows for a more in depth understanding of his desire for control toward his wife even in death.His dramatic monologue gives perhaps more information concerning the specifics of his involvement in wifes death than he realizes. The quotations incorporated within the poem such as Just this or that in y ou disgusts me and Her mantle laps over my Ladys wrist too much as well as the direct address Sir, twas all one to the guest shows the Dukes self-important attitude and his high regards for the thoughts which he believes others are thinking. The Duke boasts that he now holds the power to let others foregather the smile of the portrait that was meant single for him.He gets so enthralled with his own story of his wife he reveals that his commands ended the duchesss smiles and possibly her life. The first person point of view for this poem explains further the thirst for power and self-love which the Duke honors himself with by controlling the women and people in his life of which he feels superior. Browning illustrates the complexity of the controlling Duke by showing his carelessness and arrogance by the words he uses to impress his guest.The Duchess painted on the wall has a countenance that only can be seen by the command of the Duke. When the Duke believes the Duchess finds int erest in other people beside her husband, The Duke, gave a command which stopped all her smiles to everyone. When the Duke could not obtain fuck power over and tame his young wife, she died in a manner which is not fully explained. The Duke with the nine-hundred-year old name is meeting with a man that is pass the Duke his daughter another young maiden for marriage.This offer of marriage is gladly accepted by the Duke no doubt is eager to attempt to tame provided another sea-horse of a wife. For the Duke this marriage is a trial of the subservience of women to their wealthy and powerful husbands. The details given in this poem bring forth the polish that the Duke got rid of his last Duchess and is now ready for a new one. The title of the poem My Last Duchess suggests that the Duke had had more than one Duchess.Had the poem illustrated the Dukes first wife it could submit been titled My First Duchess. The startling command line toward the end of the poem lets the reader realize that this man has the power to make a woman be remembered by nothing more than a portrait controlled by the master of the house. This poem has themes commonly found in the local color movement and associated with feminism. Browning gives the audience a picture of the dark and distorted beginning of a new couple and marriage.

Compare and Contrast: Cataract Operation, About his person, & Poem

Simon Armitage was born in 1963 and lives in West Yorkshire. Simon Armitage has taught at the University of Leeds and the University of Iowas Writers Workshop, and currently teaches at Manchester Metropolitan University. He writes biographical meters, which are based on things, which he has experienced in his life. In this essay I will be comparing and contrasting three of Simon Armitages poems, Cataract Operation, About His Person and song.The subject matter in Cataract Operation is about the poet looking out of his window and seeing things in a guidance he has never seen them before, like pigeons in the yard, washing on a line, and hens pecking for food. This is because a cataract movement clears the lens of his eyes, which has become unclear, so the poet is affectionate to his new way of seeing things to having had a difficulty in front of his eyeball cleared away by surgery. The subject matter is a happier and more enjoyable compared to About His Person. About His Person lis ts all the items that a dead human race had upon him when he was discovered.It reads like a police officers report. The following quotations an analogue watch, self-winding, stopped, precisely beheaded in his fist, and a ring of white new skin all show a sign of a wrecked and finished life. metrical composition could be similarly compared to the two other poems. The reason creation is as it shows signs of affectionate love and signs of tragedy and deceitfulness. Poem is about a husband and a father who has a serious problem with his frame of mind. And if it cytosineed and snow covered the drive he took a spade and tossed it to one side, and always tucked his daughter up at night, and slippered her the one time that she lied. This extract shows us that he had a mixed personality and proves sometimes he did this, and sometimes he did that. The vocabulary apply in Cataract Operation can be very conduct, as the poet creates phrases, which could mean a number of things and is l eft to the reader to decide. A pigeon in the yard turns tail is an suit of the misleading run-in used because we imagine the bird turning around so that its tail faces the poet in the window, while at the same time we can read turns tail as runs away from or turns its back on, as if it is snubbing the poet.Simon Armitage excessively uses a mixture of metaphors and personifications so that all item of drying laundry takes on a characteristic gallery of the country or place that we might associate that item with. For example, the shirt is doing monkey business, as if the shirtsleeves were the monkeys arms and the handkerchief waves cheerio as the master key type of British man who wears a handkerchief in his chest pocket might do. The poem is laid out in ten couplets, but they are not rhyming couplets as we observe in About His Person. There is no steadiness in the length of the lines, to highlight that everything the poet sees is new and irregular.The language used in About His Person is very similar to the language used in cataract outgrowth. Again the poet uses a number of misleading expressions, like the title of respect itself. It could be a formal way of saying, he had on him, but if you look at it in a different manner then it could also suggest that the poem is about the dead person whom is the subject of the poem. About His Person written in ten two-line stanzas called rhyming couplets. They are short and accurate, retributive like the notes that a detective might make if he or she was investigating a dead body.The language used in Poem is different compared to the other two poems, as the words are simple. There is no misleading phrases used and the language could be considered as straight forward and formal. And every week he tipped up half his wage. And what he didnt spend each week he saved. And praised his wife for every meal she made. And once, for laughing, punched her in the face. This language is easy to understand and is uncomplicate d compared to About His Person and Cataract Operation. Poem is a sonnet, which is often the figure used for love poetry.Maybe, this highlights the lack of love in the mans life. It is split into three regular stanzas with a couplet to finish. This might help to underline the steadiness and ordinariness of the mans life. The Ideas and attitudes of cataract could be very difficult to understand. We do not notice what it was that made the Simon Armitage suddenly see all the objects he talks about in a new manner. Perhaps he did have a cataract operation or maybe he was imagining what it must be like to have one or he could even use the idea of a cataract operation as an image of what it is like to open your eyes.One thing is for sure, that he is trying to explain that we should appreciate our world and see the inner beauty that it possesses. The poet for example saw the images according to his situation and saw the magic in the simplest way and opened his eyes towards it. This cannot be compared to About His person as in this poem a man is being revived within the poem and the poem could be called as a memorial to him. In this poem Simon Armitage creates a misleading story and we are not totally sure of what happened.The police do not get emotionally involved in cases like these, as they heap up the bare facts and leave the feeling out, but we sympathise for the man as we believe he was forced to kill himself and we see him as a dupe of love and deceit. Poem can in a way be similarly compared to Cataract Operation because it tries to prove a point and produce a moral. The way Simon Armitage tried to make people aware of the beauty of our world in Cataract Operation is similar to the way he tries to make the man in Poem represent the ordinary gentlemen and set a message that sometimes you might do this, and sometimes you might do that.In this poem Simon Armitage does not truly condemn the man for all the things he did wrong he simply lists the mistakes and lea ves us to represent them. Overall I think that About His Person and Poem are similar because they both include the story of a man, whom is involved in marriage and both men have suffered from a problem and in this essay I have fully compared and contrasted all three of Simon Armitages poems.

The system of slavery and resulting

The system of striverry and resulting racial prejudice evoked negative reaction from many an(prenominal) the Statesns. Their views came into conflict with the perception of slave labor as normal and economically sound part of everyday keep prevalent in the mainstream community. some of them resorted to peaceful means for propaganda of their worldview the likes of Harriet Beecher Stowe others like Nat Turner initiated armed struggle to overthrow the hateful system.Nat Turners rebellion get overs to evoke a mixed response, depending supposedly on the race of the jurist and position on racial issues. On the one hand, Nat Turner was definitely a man of great leadership skills, able to motivate many raft to fight against inhuman conditions of the Southern plantations.On the other, he is known to have ordered the murder of al white people including children and women, and the list of the rebellions casualties includes many people whose contribution to exploitation was but marginal.Simi larly questionable are the methods of guerrilla warfare used by John Brown to liberate the slaves. This story demonstrates that centuries after, America continues to be divided on the issue of race and ways to overcome racial tensions.Harriet Beecher Stowe is certainly a less controversial figure. Her novel Uncle Toms Cabin is undoubtedly one of the most influential books in US history. Its significance was succinctly expressed by Abraham Lincoln in a individualised meeting with the writer in 1862 So youre the little woman who wrote the book that started this Great War1While the Presidents words were surely a gracious exaggeration, it is certain that Stowes novel helped wake up many citizens who, much like herself before 1850, remained passive onlookers of slaves sufferings, informed those remote from the issue, and helped shape and develop the emancipationist Movement.However, in the South she received negative publicity as people began to accuse her of exaggerating the horrors of slavery. To this date, Americans still live to some extent in the shadow of these events. Still, debates continue as to the need to compensate descendants for the atrocities of slavery, methods to be used for the rehabilitation of the African American community, and heroes of the anti-slavery struggle.For centuries, women remained on the sidelines of American society. Slowly but gradually, their role go along to rise as womens rights entered the political agenda of the United States as an important issue. This change was made possible by the efforts of many outstanding women who upheld the yard of female liberation through the toughest of times.Harriet Beecher Stowe can be considered a precursor of the Feminist movement. In a letter to George Eliot, Stowe insisted that emancipation of slaves must be followed by the emancipation of women2. In an attempt to combine the two, Stowe wrote in New York newspaper Independent that women can be active in the abolitionist cause, striving to supplement their influence by signing petitions, sharing information, and organizing community anti-slavery events3.1 Harriet Beecher Stowe Center. (2005). Harriet Beecher Stowes Life and Timeline. Retrieved June 10, 2006, from http//www.harrietbeecherstowecenter.org/life/2 Cavendish, R. (2001). Publication of Uncle Toms Cabin. History Today 51 (6), 54.3 Harriet Beecher Stowe Center. (2005). Harriet Beecher Stowes Life and Timeline. Retrieved June 10, 2006, from http//www.harrietbeecherstowecenter.org/life/

The Significance Of The Philadelphia Convention

Despite its comparatively condensed existence, America has swiftly scaled the summit of world power. This could not have been accomplished without the written record that was drawn up at the legendary Philadelphia convention. The convention was a secretive gathering, which brought together representatives of twelve of the thirteen states for the sole and express purpose of revising the articles of bond. It began in May 1787, having been proposed the previous year at an fabrication in which five states took part.Fifty-five state representatives took part, although there were r atomic number 18ly more than thirty-five at any one session. It was held in the State House at Philadelphia the city of brotherly love, an appropriate location for the establishment of the new America. The delegates worked in midget groups, six days a week, five to six hours a day, under the experienced gaze of presiding officer George Washington. After four months of exhausting talks, the delegates emerged having drawn up a completely rewritten report that now required ratification from nine states to come into effect.Removal of British rule had left America without an effective administration. Although the articles of confederacy had been devised to replace the British government activity in America, they were nothing more than a treaty of amity, of commerce and of alliance between independent and sovereign states. It was soon unpatterned that the articles were unable to adequately overcome the problems that arose. Many leading figures became anxious over this issue and the need for reconsideration ensued. The convention acknowledged this and allowed the opportunity for the most great figures in America to rectify the predicament.In early post-independent America, many unforeseen difficulties had occurred. Disputes over trade routes and in particular war debt repayment had materialised due to distinguish state government. Between 1785 and 1786 seven states had issued paper mon ey, which quickly became worthless, to repay their debts. In certain states, creditors were even compelled to accept the paper money. The central government had to rely on state generosity for its funds and authority, and a unanimous vote if key decisions were to be passed, which did not function satisfactorily due to self-interest.This rendered America as a mere collection of isolated states, vulnerable to attack by natives or rival colonists. The disjointed effort of states to solve their individual problems was becoming worryingly uncoordinated. The short-run trigger of Shayss rebellion embodied these flaws. Massachusetts had raised taxes to repay its debts, and this hit the poor (who were already struggling in the aftermath of the war of independence) hard. Daniel Shayss, a discontented war veteran turned farmer, led a mob consisting of over one thousand equally dissatisfied farmers in an assault on the Springfield armoury.Although easy put down, the incident had caused widespr ead concern over Americas weaknesses, resulting in the necessity for the convention and the changes it would incur. Americas problems in the mid 1780s stemmed from an inadequate central government. Due to a lack of control over states and individuals, congress was incapable to regulate Americas economy sufficiently, neither was it empowered to effectively defend not only its territory but also the rights of the individual. consequently the convention was significant as it mean to address the causes of these problems, not the symptoms.Thomas Jefferson, though absent from the convention serving as an envoy to France, played his part. He famously assigned the description an assembly of demi-gods to the gathering. Although this may not have been entirely appropriate, the delegates were certainly formidable among their number such legends as Franklin, Hamilton, capital of Wisconsin and Washington were to be found. The extensive reputations and abilities of these men are tribute to the importance and prominence of the convention. The collective qualities of the convention also included diversity there were federalists and anti-federalists, speakers and listeners, idealists and realists.Most of the delegates were comparatively young like James Madison the average age was forty-four, but there remained ample room for experience in the form of Benjamin Franklin among others. George Washington played a substantial constituent at the convention. Being revered Commander-in-Chief of the victorious American force during the war of independence augmented his already impressive national stature. He commanded colossal evaluate over his fellow Americans, demonstrated by his immediate and unanimous election as presiding officer at the convention.He applied this influence wisely, quickly remittal disputes and safeguarding Americas best interests while maintaining the atmosphere of goodwill. As a fledgling nation, divided into states and possessing only a loose political syst em, America was in need of a formal and comprehensive but flexible and durable document under which it was to be run. The convention recognised this fact and accordingly created the fundamental law of the United States. The constitution compromised the authority of state and federal governments for every branch of federal government there was a corresponding arm of each states government.The constitution also handed lordly power to the central government the right of individual states to make treaties, coin money, declare war or maintain an army and it required approval from the federal government over regulation of trade. Federal law took precedence, and congress now had sufficient power over taxes, defence, commerce and legislation. The supreme federal court also had the power to overrule the decisions made by state judiciaries, although states notwithstanding retained everyday management of their legal systems.Although the federal government now had supreme power and authority over important areas such as defence, it was generally perceived that the states would be predominant in organising and managing themselves, albeit under the inadvertence of the federal government. It was also necessary to compromise over the issue of state representation. To satisfy both larger and smaller states, the house of representatives was to be based upon a system of proportional representation while each state would be equally represented in the senate.These concessions were acceptable to both small states such as New Jersey and larger states like Virginia and thus one of the most frequently debated issues of the convention was settled. The constitution created a sufficiently robust federal government that was now able to rectify the previous difficulties over taxes, debts, security, law and the economy. Although the American system was now comparatively democratic, it was not excessively so only one-in-six gravid males could vote so the fears of democracy arriving too abruptly were allayed. Both state and federal governments were to be deftly balanced.Each branch of government was responsible for rule the others and could never possess a dominance of authority. For example, the president could make most key decisions, but could be overruled by the senate if the vote was adequate. He possessed often authority but due to the democratic method by which he was elected, it was unlikely that he would abuse it and congress were able to remove him if it proved necessary. indeed the constitution was also engineered to avoid its abuse and ensure that no section of Americas government could grow too powerful.Americas upcoming as a viable nation hung in the balance following its political severance from Britain. Its governmental system was previously untried and thus tractable to defects. The situation in the North American continent was potentially a very difficult one. There were huge expanses of land mainly to the east still under contention from Ind ians, the French and the Spanish. Europe was undergoing a great many changes consequently Americas links with Europe would possibly be compromised. Thus America needed a strong position with which to confront forthcoming problems, and the new constitution provided this.

Poverty Alleviation Strategy Essay

Poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere. It is a scrooge and one of the worst curses and miseries that a human beings can face. According to Homer. This , this is misery The last, the worst that man can feel. Poverty can be measured either in absolute terms, for example, the summate of those who can non afford more than two pairs of shoes, or in relative terms, for example, the number of the piteousest ten share of house holds. In either sense it is a concept, which is delineate arbitrarily .Poverty exists not only because incomes are upset, plainly also because the needs of ertain low income households are spirited. Poverty has many dimensions, which include economical, political, social, environmental and human dimensions. In economic terms a county, a region or a household is poor when the per capita income of purchasing power of a poor ground or household is below a certain minimum standard, there are low medical care and health facilities, productivity i s very low and there is inauspiciousiteracy.In political terms a country, a regionor a group of population are poor when they do not have a voice in the community or dependent on another(prenominal) more powerful groups or individuals in order to express their own rights and hoices. In social terms poverty in a country a region o a household breeds all types of socially unacceptable behaviors standardised drug addiction, crime, position, violence ad terrorism in a family or in a community, These factors degrade human self respect, moral and social set of the society as a whole and as a result more and more people in the community become intolerantand rude towards apiece other in their day to day life.In environmental dimension, poverty destroys the living environment not only of those who live in poverty unless of all other human beings as well as non-human iving things that depend on the same resources and ecosystem on which those living in poverty depend and survive. peopl e living in poverty cannot change their behaviors easily because of lack of resources, knolwledge about their own surroundings and education. Thus by destroying their own living environment, the poor in reality are destroying their own resources on which they survive in the long run.Poverty in its human dimension is the most important of all, because poor people live in conditions that are miserable, conditions in which some members of their family die of hunger, disease of famine. Poverty in tis human dimension exists, when a child is down with a curable disease and the parents have to take a decision whether to take the child to a doctor and buy expensive medicines or purchase other essentials of daily use.It exists when parents of a child sell their child into slavery or prostitutionbecause of lack of resources to feed or care for that child and when government institutes fail to hold dear the rights of the poor. Poverty has emerged as the most important issue for Pakistan. Pove rty redressal requires economic result accompanied by an improvement in access to social services. The discernment that economic growth has failed to trickle down to the poor in Pakistan is the slow improvement in social indicators Economic growth and social sector culture are interdependent as one reinforces the other.In fact economic growth is required for poverty reduction but poverty reduction itself is necessary for sustained growth. The estimates ot poverty are not consistent in Pakistan. According to caloric based calories per person), the incidence of poverty declined sharply from 46. 5 percent in 1969-70 to 17. 3percent in 1987-88. However , poverty increase significantly in 1990s ising from 17. 3 percent in 1987-88 to 22. 4 percent in 1992-93 and further to 31 percent in 1996-97. The recent estimates suggest that poverty ahs further increased from 32. percent in 1998-99 to 33. 50 percent in 1999-2000. This shows that the incidence of poverty has increased in 19990s. si milar trends have been observed in the case of urban and rural poverty. The main reasons for increase in poverty during 1990s can be attributed to the relatively lower rate of economic growth, rising unemployment, stagnant real wages, declining flow of lamers remittances and bad overnance. In addition to the factors mentioned above the high population growth also puts pressure on the merge social services thereby causing social distress.Painting a broad limning of third world poverty is not enough. Before anyone can formulate effective policies and programmes to attack poverty at its source, one needs some particular proposition knowledge of poverty groupsand their economic characteristics, It is not sufficient simply to focus on raising growth rates of Gross National Product in the expectation or hope that this national income growth will trickle down to mprove levels of living for the very poor.On the contrary many observers argue that maneuver attack on poverty by means of pov erty focused policies and plans can be more effective and one cannot attack poverty right off without detailed knowledge of its location, extent and characteristics. National Economic development is central to success in poverty easing. But poverty is an outcome of more than economic processes. It is an outcome of economic, social and political processes. To attack poverty requires action at local , national and global levels.The following actions are equired to be taken y poor people, government, private sector and civil society organizations. Growth is essential for expanding economic opportunities for the poor. The question is how to achieve rapid, sustainable and pro-poor growth. A business environmental conducive to private investment and technological innovation is necessary, as is political and social stabilityto invite public and private investments. The poor should be empowered in the received sense.Empowerment means enhancing the capacity of the poor to influence the st ates institutions that affects their lives by trengthening their participation in political process, and local decision-making. It also means removing the barriers political, legal and social that work against particular groups and building the assets of poor people to enable them to engageeffectively in markets. Enhancing security for poor people which means reducing their vulnerability to such risks as ill health, economic shocks and natural disasters and helping them cope with adverse shocks when they occur.The ultimate cause of the unequal distribution of personal incomes in most third world countries s the unequal and highly concentrated patterns of asset ownership (wealth). The principal reason why less than 20 percent of their population receives over 50 percent of the national income is that this 20 percent probably owns ad controls over 90 percent of the productive and financial resources, especially physical capital and land but also financial capital (stock and bonds) and human capital in the form of better education.It follows that perhaps more important line of policy to reduce povertyand contrast is to focus signally on reducing the concentrated control of ssets , the unequal distribution ot power, unequal access to education and income earning opportunities. Policies to enforce progressive rates of direct taxation on income especially at the highest levels are, what are most needed in this area of redistribution activity. Unfortunately, in many developing countries the rich do not show a larger part of their income and assets.Further , they often also have the power and ability to avoid paying taxes without the fear of government. Pakistan is facing couple challenges of reviving growth and reducing poverty. This requires rapid conomic growth keeping in view the factors responsible for slow growth and rising poverty, the government has formulated a comprehensive economic revival programmed aimed at reviving economic growth and social developme nt. The government has adopted a multi-pronged approach to promote pro-poor economic growth and reduce poverty.Engendering growth by correcting macroeconomic imbalances and stabilizing the economy has been made the central pillar of the governments economic revival program. The government has adopted a sound macroeconomic framework aimed at both stabilizing the economy and stimulating growth. It comprises five building blocks namely tax reforms, expenditure management, circumspect monetary policy, external adjustment and debt management. Implementing broad based governance reforms are essential ingredients of he governments poverty alleviation strategy.Without governance reforms thee colossal tasks of reviving growth and reducing poverty cannot be addressed. Sagging growth and rising poverty are in partresults of the poor performance of the government institutions in Pakistan. In fact, poverty in Pakistan is not merely an outcome of economic ills but also a result of mis-governan ce over the past years. The main share of reforms are devolution of power at grass roots level, civil services reforms, access to Justice and financial transparency.The care principle of Pakistan poverty alleviation strategy is to empower the people and to create greater opportunities for increasing real income by improving access to productive assets mainly housing, land an honorable mention. Access to credit is the surest way of empowering thepoor and improving their income generating opportunities. In addition to the already existing financial intuition, thegovernment has now established the Khushhali Bank or Micro Finance Bank for the purvey of micro credit to poor communities.The effects of sluggish economic growth are clearly reflected in Pakistans performance in the social sectors, adult male development is essential for attracting investment and generating the capacity for future sustainable growth. pakistans progress on almost every social indictor e. g. education, heal th and nutrition is poor as compared with that of other developing countries. In order to address this situation, the government has prepared comprehensive human development strategies aimed at the effective utilization of the addressable resource s hrough improved institutional mechanisms.

Case Study on Environmental Health Food Safety Division Program

Running head ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH DIVISION f atomic number 18 SAFETY PROGRAM environmental Management part of capital of California County environmental health Division nourishment Safety and tribute architectural plan T subject of content Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 History and increment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Goals and headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Description of Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Levels of Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Goal and Objective Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Target Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Program military rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Program Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Personnel Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Current spatial relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Future needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Changes to the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Appendix D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Abstract Food is a vital grammatical constituent to the survival of life on earth. Food gives people the energy to carry step up every solar day tasks. With forage being so important to life, should it non be of highest quality?Food is prep ared, cooked and consumed every minute of every day. How do consumers know that the regimen is safe? The group members of We 8 A Lot went on a accusation to find out exactly how nutriment consumers are protected and by whom. Through research and questi ons with the environmental Management Department of Sacramento County, it was imbed that in that location are a group of individuals who blend in diligently to protect fodder consumers by inspecting the 6,000 regimen facilities in Sacramento County. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT division OF SACRAMENTO COUNTYENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH DIVISION FOOD SAFETY AND PROTECTION PROGRAM Introduction For the case study, our group chose to investigate the Food Protection Program that resides within the Environmental wellness Division which operates under the umbrella of the Environmental Management Department (EMD) of Sacramento County. The functions of this department not only protect residents and consumers of this county in the matter of retail food rubber eraser save, besides by the regulation and enforcement of water protection and hazardous materials.On October 1, 2004, an interview was conducted at the Environmental wellness Division office located at 8475 Jackson Road, in Sacramento, wit h June Livingston, Communications and Media Officer and Richard Sanchez, Environmental Program Manager. In the interview, Mr. Sanchez revealed that in that respect are close to 6000, food facilities in this Sacramento county ( personal communication, October 1, 2004) With this many retail food facilities in Sacramento County and the consumer culture of Ameri gages, the potential for food-borne illness is staggering.Just integrity instance of improper handling, storage, or preparation of foods in retail food facilities can cause ripe outbreaks of infections or in severe cases, death. On average, each day in the United States al one and only(a), over 200,000 people f alone ill with a food-borne illness and of those, fourteen will die (Sizer & Whitney, 2003, p. 511) Keeping this in mind and the fact that food is one humanitys roughly basic needs for survival, this agency most definitely warrants study. Since our team was quite large, 8 members, and relative to food, we decided to name it, We 8 a lot. Similarly, c eitherable to our team size we decided to split it into halves.One-half of the team devoted their efforts to online and print research while the other half focused on interview and personal communication research. Project tasks were divided between the team members and each member was deemed responsible for his or her content area. Moreover, leadership positions of paper editor, Power item manager, and team recorder were established on a volunteer basis to avoid any confusion during the project. The members of this team, listed alphabetically are Simranjot Bains, David Chan, Lynn Gervacio, Safiya Nuur, Joy Pastones, Shantell Payne, Valerie Quitoriano, and Yvonne Rains.History and Development Prior to becoming a department, EMD syllabus elements were housed in the County wellness Department. But in 1988, the Sacramento County Environmental Management Department (EMD) became a consolidated, freestanding department consistent with separate City and County advisory body recommendations to merge and augment environmental regulative activities. Initial program elements allow ind Air Quality, Environmental health (includes Food Protection Program), and Hazardous Materials Divisions. The Sacramento Air Quality Management District separated from EMD and County Government in 1995.The Environmental Management Department soon has terzetto operating divisions, with Water Protection which was added in 2003. The organizational chart in Appendix A shows the various divisions of the Sacramento County. The Environmental Management Department is one of ten county service agencies. The organizational chart in Appendix B shows how the EMD is further divided. Within the Sacramento EMD, thither are three subdivisions that abide been listed above. Under the Water Protection, Environmental wellness and Hazardous Materials Divisions, there are also a number of subdivisions.Goals and Objectives The Food Protection Program, which is part of the Environmental Health Division (EHD), is responsible for regulation and enforcement of state and local health codes at all retail food facilities in Sacramento County and all incorporated cities. The mission of the agency is to protect the health of the public from unsafe food, water and hazardous materials. The Food Protection Programs goal is to ensure food galosh practices at all retail food facilities in Sacramento County and to be summon a world leader in terms of clean and uncontaminated food (http//www. hs. ca. gov/ps/fdb/hypertext markup language/Food/indexfoo. htm). Achieved Goals The Food Protection Program of Sacramento County has achieved many goals. First, the agency has increased the number of review articles from once a socio-economic class to twice a year for facilities that prepare food. Second, it has developed an enhanced Prioritized Inspection Frequency Compliance on their website to assist businesses in the county (http//www. emd. saccounty. fire/Documents/I nfo/Bulletin0503-prioritized_inspection_frequency. pdf. ). This site settles many questions and has information about the laws and requirements.Third, as of July, 1 2003, the Food Protection Program has mandated all businesses to post their most recent inspection report in a visible rank for customers to read. Fourth, the agency has initiated an allocate of righteousness in Food Safety to recognize operators of food facilities in Sacramento County and all incorporated cities who exhibit excellent food safeguard and sanitation standards (http//www. emd. saccounty. engagement/EH/EMDFoodSafetyAwards. htm. ). Long Term Goals The Food Protection Program also has many long-term goals.First, the program seeks to increase the surveillance on food markets such as Raleys, Bel-Air, Albertsons, Safeway, and smaller, family owned markets. The program wants to inspect these businesses twice a year instead of the current one-year inspection. The second long-term goal of the program is to change from hand written inspection reports to computer-based inspections. In order to do this, the program needs to purchase additional equipment such as laptops or round other computer devices that would allow employees to type their inspection.In order to achieve these goals, the program needs to save money and implement additional training for their employees. (personal communication, kinfolk 18, 2004). The third, long-term goal of the Food Protection Program is to generate more interest in this field. Ms. Livingston, who is the Communications and Media Officer of the Environmental Management Department, commented that the people public are not quite sure who does this work, referring to the functions of EMD. Ms. Livingston also commented that they will do more outreach and awareness programs to let people know that food protection is affair (personal communication, September 18, 2004). Description of Services Some of the services the Food Protection Program provides are san ctionting, inspecting and re-inspecting of retail food facilities. The agency also provides food safety education to train employees of food facilities to modify compliance in terms of food safety regulations and reduction of the incidence of food borne-illness. It also issues permits for new businesses and provides outreach programs for the public. The Food Protection Program investigates complaints and suspected cases of food borne-illnesses when they do occur.Finally, as a last resort, the agency can enforce closure of food facilities with consistent non-compliance (http//www. emd. saccounty. net/pdf/CURFFL. pdf. ). Levels of Intervention The levels of intervention of the Food Protection Program function on primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Primary clogion of the agency is enacted through education, outreach, regulation, and inspection. The agency inspects food facilities to prevent contamination of food and food borne-illnesses from the public. Secondary prevention of t he Food Protection Program is accomplished through the re-inspection process.When businesses father major violations, they are given a two week period to correct the problem. Once the problems convey been corrected, the re-inspection process ensures compliance. Finally, the tertiary level of prevention of the Food Protection Program closes food facilities that have consistent major violations and or violations that are not corrected in a timely fashion. Major violations are those that pose public health hazards such as contaminated equipment (personal communication, September 18, 2004). Goal and Objective Relevance The goals and objectives of the agency address the human ecology and heath studied.The agency provides educational programs through scientific principals to protect the heath of the public and the environment. The Food Protection Program Agency completes these tasks through teamwork and a cooperative approach (http//www. emd. saccounty. net/pdf/CURFFL. pdf). As Richard Sanchez, emphasized, the point of the program is not to try and fine people, but the first thing we want to do is to organize people and help them understand what it is that they are supposed to do (2004). Mr. Sanchez also mentioned that when people know what food borne-illness is, they are less likely to violate the laws.One of the big ones is hand washing. Something so simple can prevent so much (personal communication, September 18, 2004). Target Population The Environmental Health Division goals are to deliver outstanding service to all Sacramento County residents including the incorporated cities of Isleton, Folsom, red deer Grove, Galt, Rancho Cordova and Citrus Heights. They also aim to service the visitors in the area as well. The population of this county is over 1. 2 million residents, which is about 1200 persons per square mile. There are food venues developing everywhere to meet the demand of the consumers.The venues where food is served, either cooked or prepackage d, will be subject to an inspection and will be given a permit once it has passed. The typical venues consist of restaurants (fast food, ice cream shops, delicatessens, coffee shops, sandwich shops), mobile food units, bars, taverns, commissaries, bed and breakfasts, school cafeterias, day/ shaver care facilities, senior non-profit nutrition programs, convenience stores, dairies, and farmers markets as well as spare or temporary events such as the fair, and craft or passageway fairs.During the inspection, even the smallest attributes of food preparation and serving styles are observed. EHD is now striving to complete two inspections per year to better the service of the community and lessen the jeopardy for any food-borne illnesses in the future. Program Evaluation The Environmental Health Division of the Food Safety Protection Program does not have a starchy evaluation process however, they do participate in voluntary evaluations. The purpose of an evaluation is to determine w hether the objectives of the program are being met and to provide feedback to improve the program.If we were to survey this program, we would use summative evaluations, which are used to determine how well the program has met their predetermined short term and long-term goals and objectives. Summative evaluations use two types of procedures, carry on and outcome. Impact procedures are used mainly for immediate, short-term effects while outcome procedures are used for long-term effects. For the EHD Food Safety Protection Program, we would appraise a set number of food-borne illnesses and a set number of food safety violations and and then evaluate how well the program worked to make sure they did not exceed those limits.Even though the food protection program does not have a formal evaluation process, ironically, they won a 2004 Challenge Award from the atomic number 20 State Association of Counties. Out of 163 Challenge Award entries from 38 counties, the Sacramento County Food Safety Education for Restaurants Program was one of the 10 recipients of the Award. The salute was based on demonstrated leadership, innovation, creativity, resourcefulness and effectiveness, as well as the potential for successful elements of the program to be used as a molding for other counties.One of the reasons hypothesized why they business leader have gotten the award was because of their affiliations. The Food Safety Program is a member of the California Restaurant Association (CRA), where the annual membership fee is based on the gross revenue of the program. CRA has been representing approximately 20,000 foodservice establishments in California since 1906. Some of the benefits of membership in the CRA are discounts and savings on essential products, programs and services. Moreover, members are also kept informed on the latest industry issues through newsletters, publications, and resources.Program Funding The Environmental Health Divisions financing sources come from four different areas reimbursements, charges for services, reserve release, and other revenues. The department receives no tax money from the government however, the department does receive some government grants, but not of any significant amount under the food program. Most of the Environmental Management Departments large grants are given to the Hazardous materials division, kind of than the Environmental Health division, under which the food program is directed.The U. S. Federal Drug Administration did give the food program a small grant in the amount of $5,000 to get their staff training sessions. These grants are listed under the reimbursement area. The charges for services category consists of re-inspection fees, which are billed when food facilities use more time than what the permit pays for. These fees are allocated at the hourly rate of up to $149. 00. The third area, the reserve release, makes improvements possible and makes additional money available if needed.This fi nancial source comes from saving bare money left over from the previous months finances. Once there is a need for money that isnt being met by the three other financial resources, then money is make fulln out of the reserve. Also if improvements need to be make, such as a new computer system, then the reserve covers this cost. The Environmental Health Division earns the majority of their revenues from the services they provide, which is listed under the other revenue area. Every food installation requires a permit from the Environmental Health Division and is charged a fee for their inspection.Some facilities are inspected once a year, but recently the requirements changed for higher-risk facilities (food preparation sites) to be inspected twice a year. The total budget for the food program is $2,840,243, while the entire budget for the whole program is close to $13 million. another(prenominal) service the Environmental Health Division provides and earns revenues from is the Food Safety Education program (FSE). The program encompasses two classes about food safety, in which they charge $20 per person for attending. They also put forward to perform the classes at the actual food facility site for $400.Despite the fact that the Environmental Health Division receives no tax money from the government, Richard Sanchez believes it is a good thing. He states that when there is a tax cut in government funding, then agencies start having to cut people. He proudly claims that they have never had to cut people, but rather they are adding positions (personal communication, September 18, 2004). In fact, most of their expenditures are from staffing fees. The other two financial uses the department covers are reserve pabulum and services and supplies.As mentioned earlier, the reserve provisions consist of extra money that is saved until further needed for improvements or in case financial sources are running low. The money spent on services and supplies is directed towa rds rent and office provisions. Some of the services the Food Program uses are classified into special interfund/intrafund charges and reimbursements. This would include lab analysis services from a Sacramento County agency. If the inspectors want to have a closer look at a particular facilitys food quality, then an analysis of that food would be performed.The services used by the Food Program would not be paid in cash, rather it would be seen as a trade out to the other Sacramento agency in return for services from the Food Program such as a permit or inspection of that agencys food facility. Personnel Qualifications Currently, in the County of Sacramento Environmental Management Department there are 110 employees. Of those 110 individuals, 27 are employed within the Food Protection Program. Employment opportunity of the Environmental Health Division varies from what is referred to as a Level I to a Level IV position of Environmental Health Specialist.The minimum qualifications of the Level I position require one year of experience performing adept support or a completion of twelve semester units from a college or university in physical science, life science, or engineering. The salary offered to the Environmental Health Specialist I is $2509. 00 to $3398. 00 per month. The variation in salary is due to experience. If the employee has just started, the salary begins at $2509. 00, but as the person gains experience within the field, the salary increases up to a accepted point which is $3398. 0 per month. In order to grow within the field at all levels, the employee needs to complete the supplemental questionnaire, which encompasses the employees level of education, experience in technical support and public health contact work, possession of current California drivers license, knowledge of different cultures, and English fluency. Once the questionnaire is submitted, the panel group sets a date for the employee to take a test. The test is divided into ranks, and unremarkably the first three ranks are chosen for the job.Once, the employee has qualified, then the new title given. The position of Environmental Health Specialist II, ranges in salary from $3659. 00 to $4447. 00 per month. This employee should be able to research, interpret, and apply environmental laws and regulations. This position requires the candidate to have (1) graduation degree in health science, public health, natural science or physical science, (2) one year of experience in environmental research or regulation, or (3) Registered Environmental Health Specialist certification.The third level of employment known as the Environmental Health Specialist III covers field inspections and research. Some of the duties performed are organization and analysis of environmental data collected, development and preparation of studies related to regulatory compliance, meeting with business owners to develop solutions to achieve compliance, training and guiding other staff members, and preparation of written analyses and recommendations. This positions salary starts at $4367. 00 and ends at $5308. 00 per month.In order to qualify for this position, the candidate must have a Masters degree in health science, public health, physical science, or environmental health and a one-year experience in environmental inspection, enforcement, regulation, analysis, or a previous title of Registered Environmental Health Specialist II certification. Environmental Health Specialist IV is the last level of employment and in this position, the candidate is considered a supervisor and is responsible for a team of scientific, professional, and technical staff. At this level, the candidate is paid from $5392. 00 to $5945. 00 per month.He or she plans, organizes, and reviews the work of the team. The candidate also participates in developing and implanting new policies, procedures, programs, regulations, and guidelines related to inspections, enforcement, compliance, and scientific studies. Besides these positions there are also student intern positions which require the student to perform basic duties such as answering the phone, filing, distributing the mail, and helping in research. The students are allowed to work a maximum of 24 hours per week and the only students who qualify for this position are those who are in their last year of completing their degree.Current Status Currently, the services provided by the food safety program are mandated by the State of California in accordance with local provisions and the California alike Retail Food Facilities Law (CURFFL), which finds and declares that the public health interest requires that there be uniform statewide health and sanitation standards for retail food facilities to discipline the people of this state that food will be pure, safe, and unadulterated. It is the intention of this Legislature to occupy the whole field of health and sanitation standards for these food facilities . . and regulations a dopted consistent to its provisions shall be exclusive of all local health and sanitation standards relating to these facilities. (http//www. Emd. saccounty. net/pdf/CURFFL2004. pdf, p. 4) Since this program is mandated by the state, the food safety program of the Environmental Health Division is at no risk for disruption or dismantling. Twenty-seven, Registered Environmental Health Specialists will continue to inspect retail food facilities twice p.a. (effective July 1, 2003). Although the state mandates inspection twice yearly, Mr.Sanchez, conceded in the interview that markets such as Raleys are only getting inspected once annually. As of the end of September, 2004, the Environmental Health Division has completed 6,132 inspections of retail food facilities and 742 inspections of area dairies (http//www. saccounty. net/pdf/EMD-2004-10_Update. pdf. , p. 4). Aside from routine inspections and re-inspections of retail food facilities, Environmental Health continues to offer food saf ety education and certification classes as well as community outreach events designed to inform consumers and retailers about food safety and compliance with state and local health codes.This group attended an outreach event held at Carmichael Park, on September 18, 2004, where the Environmental Health Division booth activities included a hamburger cooking induction to demonstrate proper cooking temperatures as well as safe food handling techniques. Other activities performed by the Environmental Health Division include responding to consumer complaints, investigation of cases of food-borne illness, there have been 180 cases in Sacramento County as of the end September of this year, evaluation of plans for new food facilities, as well as the granting of permits for these new food facilities (http//www. accounty. net/pdf/EMD-2004-10_Update. pdf, p. 4). Moreover, the Environmental Health Division continues to collect fees for their services and proudly distinguishes qualifying retail food facilities with their Award of Excellence for food safety. Last year, ninety-three area establishments were the recipients of this award. Future Needs The Food Safety and Protection Program is a growing program. As the number of food facilities in the Sacramento area increase, so do the needs of the program.Some of the future needs of the program include an increase in the number of employees for the program, modify outreach programs, software program program to improve inspections and inspection reports, and an implementation of a restaurant grading system. The first need of the program is an increase in the number of employees. With only 27 employees who actually do work under the Food Safety and Protection Program, the job of inspecting 6,000 food facilities plus other required tasks is certainly overwhelming. One might think, Why dont they just go ahead and hire more people? Working for the EHD not only requires a college degree but employees must also obtain certificati on deeming themselves Registered Environmental Health Specialists. Now one might think What is a Registered Environmental Health Specialist? To answer the above question, the program needs to perform an awareness of the position. This leads us to the second need of the program. The Food Safety and Protection program is in need of an improved outreach program. Up until finding out what personnel qualifications were needed, we did not know what a Registered Environmental Health Specialist was.More concentrated efforts in outreach programs that introduce and educate people about the validity of their profession may generate more interest in the academic setting thus creating more potential professionals. Another need of the program involves a software program to improve inspections and inspection reports. This program needs to make the change from hand-written reports to typed reports. Going from hand-written to automation would make it much easier for people to read and understand t he reports. The final future need of the Food Safety and Protection Program is to implement a restaurant grading system.The restaurant grading system would provide to customers knowledge of where the restaurant stands in terms of food safety compliance. According to June Livingston, The restaurants would be given a grade ranging from A-F. A of course being the highest grade to be received and F the lowest. A grade of C, would mean that the restaurant meets minimum compliance requirements (personal communication, October 27, 2004). The program is facilitate working on the grading system in terms of how it will work and getting legislation to approve the system. Changes to the ProgramThe Food Safety and Protection Program is an extremely successful program under the Environmental Management Department. For 27 employees to be able to inspect 6,000 food facilities is an incredible feat. However, with their measured success, there is some room for improvement. If we were administrators of the program there are a few things that we would do differently. One of the changes that we would make is to the outreach programs. Despite the fact that one of the goals of the program is to have more outreach programs, there is something that we would like to add.In addition to having more outreach programs, we would have the programs target people as early as high school. The outreach should also be targeted at people in colleges and universities. By doing this, a larger audience of people would become knowledgeable of the profession and quite possibly decide to take the path to becoming a Registered Environmental Health Specialist. Another change would be to hire on more employees. With more employees, more work can be done and the current practice of multi-tasking would cease to exist.More employees will allow for more inspections of food facilities thus reducing risk to the public. Increasing inspections of food facilities from annually/biannually to quarterly is another ch ange that we would make as administrators. Food facilities currently undergo one, maybe two inspections a year. Every day new discoveries are made in terms of proper food handling, food-borne illnesses and much more. With these new discoveries, it would be particularly helpful and beneficial that inspections be made on a quarterly basis.Also, more frequent inspections would encourage food facilities to really meet compliance and go above and beyond what is needed for food safety. The final change that we would make to the program is to improve inspection report legibility and visibility. If one were to take a look at an actual inspection report and read the comments written, it usually is difficult to read. We would make the inspection reports typed so that everyone would be able to read exactly what was found at the inspection. We would also improve the visibility of the report.Truth be told, not every food facility has their inspection report visible to the public. We would change this by requiring that establishments post the reports either by the cash register, the doors, in the waiting area if applicable or even by the bathrooms. We would further enforce this requirement by charging the facility a certain fee if the inspection report is not fully visible to the public. The addition of a fee for not having the report visible would not only create added revenue for the program, but it would also get the food facilities to comply more strongly in order to avoid getting fined.With these reports visible, the public would have the ability to find out whether or not they are eating at a food safe establishment. References County of Sacramento Environmental Department Website. (2004). Award of Excellence in Food Safety. Retrieved November 12, 2004 from http//www. emd. saccounty. net/EH/EMDFoodSafetyAwards. htm County of Sacramento Environmental Department Website. (2004). California Uniform Retail Food Facilities Law (CURFFL). Retrieved November 3, 2004 from http //www. Emd. saccounty. net/pdf/CURFFL2004. pdf. County of Sacramento California Website. (2004). County government Chart. Retrieved October 16, 2004 from http//www. saccounty. net/portal/about/docs/county-org-chart. pdf. County of Sacramento California Website. (2004). Food Safety Program, Retrieved November 12, 2004 from http//www. dhs. ca. gov/ps/fdb/HTML/Food/indexfoo. htm. County of Sacramento Environmental Department Website. (2004). Prioritized Inspection Frequency, Retrieved November 12, 2004 from http//www. emd. saccounty. net/Documents/Info/Bulletin0503 prioritized_inspection_frequency. pdf County of Sacramento Environmental Department Website. (2004). Update.Retrieved October, 16, 2004 from http//www. saccounty. net/pdf/EMD-2004-10_Update. pdf. Sizer, F. , & Whitney, E. (2003). Food safety and food technology. In E. Howe, & J. Boyd (Eds. ), Nutrition Concepts and controversies (pp. 509-556). Belmont,USA Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. APPENDIX A THE ORGANIZATION CHART pic Note . From County of Sacramento California Website http//www. saccounty. net/portal/about/docs/county-org-chart. pdf Copyright 2004 by County Executive. Reprinted with permission. APPENDIX B ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATION CHART Figure 1. The subdivisions within Environmental Management.APPEDNDIX C PROPOSAL Proposal This case study seeks to explore the Environmental Health Division within the Environmental Management Department of Sacramento County. investigating in this agency will reveal how the County of Sacramento protects its residents and consumers from potential health hazards and illnesses originating from retail food facilities. Today, the average consumer rarely worries about the risk of dining out or grabbing a bite however, factors such as improper storage, cooking and handling of foods or poor sanitation practices have the potential to create serious illness and even death.This agency warrants investigation since food is one of mans most basic and vital needs for sur vival. Management Plans Private School Inspections Land physical exertion Evaluation Toxic Site Clean Up Well Monitoring Septic Tanks Recycled Water Industrial Storm water Program Risk Evaluation Accidental Release HazMat Land Use Incident Response Storage Tanks Business Plans Mold Information Lead Illness Investigation Tobacco retail merchant Program Medical Waste Recreational Health Food Protection & Safety Education Water Protection Hazardous Materials Environmental Health Environmental Management

Poetic Drama /Verse Drama of Modern age Essay

Eliots plays attempt to re indispensableize verse romp and usually treat the comparable themes as in his poetry. They include Murder in the duomo (1935), dealing with the final hours of doubting Thomas Becket The Family Reunion (1939) The Cocktail P wiley (1950) The Confidential Clerk (1954) and The Elder solon (1959)..(1) Indeed, Eliot hoped that the fill and critical reception of early modern verse dramatic play would shape the production of modernist verse drama. In the 1924 essay Four Elizabethan Dramatists, Eliot calls for the study of Elizabethan drama to fool a revolutionary influence on the future of drama.(2) Yet, in his later writings as a verse dramatist, Eliot ever so keeps an arms length amidst himself and the early modern dramatic poets, especially Shakespeargon, whom he saw as his strongest precursors in the development of a modernist incline verse drama. In the 1951 piece Poetry and Drama, on the study of verse style in his own first major poetic drama, M urder in the Cathedral, Eliot writes, As for the versification, I was solo aware at this spot that the essential was to avoid any echo of Shakespeare. Therefore what I kept in judicial decision was the versification of Everyman.(3) Elsewhere, he is keenly aware of the challenges of writing verse drama for a modernist theatre The difficulty of the author is also the difficulty of the audience.Both pull in to be trained both need to be conscious of many things which neither an Elizabethan dramatist, nor an Elizabethan audience, had any need to know.(4) Eliot buzz offs his whip for training his p. 105 audience and himself, as dramatist, less in the mannikins Shakespeare and his contemporaries provide than in the moulds their medieval predecessors left behind. This essay examines Eliots status as a medieval modernist. The periodicity of Eliots Middle Ages, problematic as it is, represents the convergence of his animus against modernity and liberalism with his desire for a religio sity that is not marginal, fragmented, and com arraymentalized plainly rather interchange to the activity of everyday life in a culture and society best characterized by the words unity, integration, and orderthe ideological talking to of conservatism. In part, the ideal of Eliot asmedieval modernist is indebted to Michael T. Salers incline on visual modernity, the English avant-garde, and the London Underground transport system. What Saler describes in hurt of medieval modernism is very a great deal a stance or attitude towards the relationship between aesthetic production (imagination) and the utility of consumption (reception) grounded in a genial functionalism thought to have its origins in the medieval.I should be quick to point out that Saler is rather ambivalent on the point with regard to Eliot himself While T. S. Eliot expertness be called a medieval modernist because of his admiration for the organic and spiritual community of the Middle Ages together with his im personal c at onception of art, his elitist and causealist views isolate him from several of the central terms of the tradition as I have defined it.Eliots ambivalence towards the early modern and repeated turns to the medieval evidence a contradiction between Eliots life-long desire for a clearly articulated unity, integration, and order in all aspects of everyday life, including writing and religion, and his fetishization of an early modern period he imagines in terms of anarchy, disorder, and decay. Eliot repeatedly mystifies the early modern period. In his introduction to G. Wilson Knights The Wheel of attack, Eliotgives voice to a vision of the early modern bypast as a period of phantasmagoric peril, uncertainty, even unknowability But with Shakespeare, we seem to be moving in an air of Cimmerian darkness. The conditions of his life, the conditions under which dramatic art was then possible, seem even much remote from us than those of DanteVerse drama is any drama indite as verse to be communicate another possible general term is poetic drama. For a very long period verse drama was the dominant form of drama in Europe (and was also important in non-European cultures). Greek tragedy and Racines plays are written in verse, as is al about all of Shakespeares drama, and Goethes Faust. Verse drama is particularly associated with the seriousness of tragedy, providing an artistic reason to write in this form, as well as the practical one that verse lines are easier for the actors to memorize exactly. In the second half of the twentieth speed of light verse drama fell almost completely out of fashion with dramatists writing in English (the plays of Christopher youngster andT. S. Eliot being possibly the end of a long tradition).As Eliot sank ever more(prenominal) deeply into his Anglo-Catholic schtick and he no longer had Pound around to cut the fat and grain filler out of his work, he turned to writing verse drama. He wanted to applypeople.Heprobablywa ntedtobeShakespeare.Murder in the Cathedral was the first of these verse dramas, and the only one I place even deject to tolerate. The title is intended to evoke a whodunnit it may be a ponderous Eliotian attempt at a witticism. The joke, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as it is, is that the murderee is Archbishop St. Thomas Becket, the killers are whatever of heat content IIs knights, and the scene of the crime is Canterbury Cathedral, anno domini 1170. If you happened to be hanging around Canterbury in 1935, this was a big win because Canterbury Cathedral is where the thing was first performed. (If you were hanging aroundCanterburyin1170,callmeweshouldtalk).The background King atomic number 1 IIs wanted to gain influence oer the Church in England. He appointed Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury to that end because Becket was his boy. Once in office, Beckets loyalty shifted to the Church. The two came into conflict over the practice of attempt clergy in ecclesiastical courts f or civil offenses, and Becket fled to France. Whilein France he continued to defy Henry, going so far as to excommunicate some of Henrys more loyalbishops.At the beginning of the play, Becket returns from his seven-year exile in France. He goes straight to Canterbury, arriving in while for Act I. Four Tempters tempt him. Meanwhile, Henry has put on his tooshie Stanfa hat and do an offhand remark to some of his knights about how convenient it would be if Becket werent around any more. The knights blow over the obvious conclusion about what he means, and they depart for Canterbury. When they arrive, Becket explains that he is loyal to a higher power than the king. They reply that they arent, and they kill him at the altar. The bloodshed is followed by a flourish of self-exculpatory forensic rhetoric from the knights They argue persuasively that theyve done the right thing, but not too persuasively because the author doesnt agree. Exeunt knights some priests pray at each other and asperse the audience practisednight,goodnight.Historically, Henry disavowed the whole thing, the knights fell into dis mildness, and Becket was peckonized.The whole thing suffers from Late Eliot Syndrome No tack is left unsledgehammered. He lectures us about his points rather than demonstrating or illustrating them, and the writing isoften less than inspired. Still, its better than his other verse dramas The form and the language are at least appropriate to the material, and the material holds up under the weight of the Message. Eliot later attempted to pile similar Messages onto midcentury English businessperson melodrama-inverseItdidntwork.At the height of his powers, Eliot ground power have done something really provoke with Murder in the Cathedral.Christopher Fry, who has died, aged 97, was, with TS Eliot, the leading figure in the revival of poetic drama that took place in Britain in the late 1940s. His most popular play, The Ladys Not For Burning, ran for nine months in the west End in 1949. But although Fry was a sacrificial victim of the histrionics revolution of 1956, he bore his fall from fashion with the stoic grace of a Christian humanist and increasingly turned his attention to writing epic films, most notably Ben Hur (1959). The Lady remains Frys most popular play the leading role of Thomas Mendip has attracted actors as various as Richard Chamberlain, Derek Jacobi and Kenneth Branagh. Today, one is struck by the way in which Frys euphuistic language at one point, the hero describes himself as a perambulating vegetable patched with inconsequential hair over shows the dramatic run. But in a postwar theatre that had little room for realism, Frys medieval setting, rich verbal conceits and self-puncturing irony delighted audiences, and the play became the flagship for the revival of poetic drama. At the same time, Eliots The Cocktail Party enjoyed a West End vogue, and a new movement was born. Though less of a public theorist than Eliot, F ry still believed passionately in the validity of poetic drama.As he wrote in the magazine, Adam In prose, we convey the eccentricity of things, in poetry their concentricity, the sense of relationship between them a belief that all things express the same identity and are all contained in one discipline of revelation. For a period in the late 1940s and early 50s, Fry helped to revive English verse drama, to which he brought colour, movement and a stoic gaiety. How many of his plays will survive, only time can tell. But, at his best, he brought an undeniable, spiritual elan to the drab world of postwar British theatre. He certainly deserves to be remembered as something more than the aspiration for Margaret Thatchers famous remark, The ladys not for turning. For many centuries from the Greeks onwards verse was, throughout Europe, the natural and almost exclusive specialty for the opus and presentation of dramatic whole kit with any pretensions to seriousness or the status of art .Western dramas twin origins, in theGreek Festivals and in the rituals of the medieval church, naturally predisposed it to the use of verse. For tragedy verse long remained the only veracious vehicle. In comedy the use of prose became increasingly common boastful rise, for example, to such interesting cases as Ariostos I suppositi, written in prose in 1509 and reworked twenty years later in verse. (La cassaria also exists in both prose and verse). Shakespeares use of prose in comic scenes, especially those of low life, and for loadingive contrast in certain scenes of the tragedies and history plays, shows an increasing awareness of the possibilities of the medium and perhaps already contains an implicit associationbetween prose and realism. Verse continued to be the dominant medium of tragedy throughout the seventeenth century even domestic tragedies such as A Yorkshire Tragedy (Anon., 1608) or Thomas Heywoods A Woman Killed With Kindness (1603) were composed in light verse. F or all the continuing use of verse it is hard to pass the feeling that by the end of the seventeenth century it had largely ceased to be a genuinely living medium for dramatists. Increasingly the prevailing musical phrases of dramatic verse became decidedly literary, owing more to the work of earlier dramatists than to any real relationship with the language of its own time. By 1731 George Lillos The London Merchant, or The History of George Barnwell, for all its clumsiness and limitations, in its presentation of a middle-class tragedy in chiefly effective prose archieved a theatrical liveliness and plausibility largely absent from contemporary verse tragedies from Addisons Cato (1713), Thomsons Sophonisba (1730) and Agamemnon (1738), or Johnsons Irene (1749).The example of Racine was vital to such plays, but it was not one that proved very fertile. Lillo was praised in France by Diderot and Marmontel, in Germany by Lessing and Goethe. It is not unreasonable to see Lillos work as an early and clumsy anticipation of Ibsens. The London Merchant constitutes one indication of the effective death of verse drama. Others are not far to seek. In France, Houdar de La Motte was also writing prose tragedies in the 1720s, and Stendhal, in the 1820s was insistent that prose was now the only possible medium for a viable tragedy. Ibsen largely broken-down verse after Peer Gynt (1867), in favour of prose plays more directly and realistically concerned with contemporary issues. Awell-known letter to Lucie Wolf (25 whitethorn 1883) proclaims that Verse has been most injurious to the art of drama It is improbable that verse will be employed to any extent worth mentioning in the drama of the immediate future since the aims of the dramatists of the future are almost certain to be incompatible with it.Against the background of such a drill of development, later dramatic works in verse have often seemed eccentric or academic this should not blind us, however, to the long ach ievements of modern verse drama and to the importance of the evidence they bear to an idea of drama often radically different from the prevailing modern conceptions. A genre which has given rise to some of the most interesting work of DAnnunzio and Hofmannsthal, Yeats and Eliot, is surely not a negligible one.In the English context, the verse dramas of the Romantics and the Victorians already constituted a kind of revival part of a conscious effort to bring poetry back to the theatre. For the Romantics there was still a potential audience with some sense that verse was the propermedium for tragedy. The theatrical inexperience of the poets, however, made them ill-equipped for real dramatic achievement. The efforts of Wordsworth (The Borderers), 1795-6), Coleridge (eg. Remorse, 1813), and Keats (Otho the Great, 1819) remain of only antiquarian interest, judged as works for the theatre, though all have much to tell about their filmrs, and the Borderers, at least, is a work of conside rable poetic substance. Perhaps slightly more praise might be all-inclusive to some of Byrons verse dramas (eg. Manfred, 1817 Marino Faliero, 1820 Sardanapalus, 1821) and Shelleys Cenci (1818) contains some scenes of considerable power. For most of the English romantics, however, the shadow of Shakespeare proved oppressive admiration, or rather reverence, for his example produced in their own work a poetic and theatrical idiom lacking all freshness and contemporaneity.It was in the work of other lands and languages that the example of Shakespeare could work more positively. In Germany, for example, there emerged a rich new tradition of verse drama in the works of Lessing (eg. Nathan Der Weise, 1779), Goethe, Schiller, Werner, Kleist (notably in Penthesilea, 1808, and Der Prinz vonHomburg, 1821) and others. In Italy the early plays of Manzoni (Il Conte di Carmagnola, 1820 Adelchi, 1822) provided en example which only a few poet-dramatists endeavoured to follow, while others -such as Niccolini were more concerned with an attempt to revive Greek models of tragedy. (In Italy verse drama could often not escape from the shadow of the operatic tradition). In America too, verse drama was being attempted by dramatists such as John Howard Payne (eg. Brutus, 1818), Robert Mongomery Bird (The Gladiator, 1831) and, a work of some quality, George Henry Bokers Francesca da Rimini (1855). In 1827-8 the English troupe made its famous visit to Paris, performing, amongst other works, all four of Shakespeares major tragedies. The impact was enormous.One of those most affected and impressed was the young Victor Hugo. In Hugos plays, much influenced by Shakespeare, romanticism rig far more effective expression in verse drama than it had ever found in England. In plays such as Hernani (1830), Le roi samuse (1832), Ruy Blas (1838) and Les Burgraves (1843), Hugo creates a verse idiom of immense vigour which articulates visions of concentrated and extreme human emotion. At his best Hugos discrimination of character, if crude, is also striking. Other succesful versedramas later in the century included Francois Coppes Severo Torelli (1883) Les Jacobites (1885) and Pour la couronne (1895), as well as Edmond Rostands Cyrano de Bergerac (1897). Certainly it is in the work of french and German poets (in plays by Hebbel, Grillparzer and Grabbe as well as those of the poets mentioned earlier) and in the early verse plays of Ibsen notably Brand (1866) and Peer Gynt (1867) that something akin the full potential of verse drama is expressed. In England nothing of similar power exists in the nineteenth century. Theplays of James Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862) such as William Tell (1825) and The Love Chase (1837) provided effective roles for the great actor-manager Macready, but have little now to offer.Macready also acted in Lyttons The Lady of Lyons (1838) and Richelieu (1839), both of which had considerable theatrical success, and are not entirely without enduring mer its. Poets such as Tennyson (eg. Queen Mary, 1876 Harold, 1876 Becket, 1879) and Browning (eg. Strafford, 1837 A Blot in the Scutcheon, 1843) also wrote for the theatre but displayed very little sense of the genuinely theatrical (Tennyson fabricated that he could leave it to Irving to fitBecket for the stage). Other poets wrote closet dramas never intended for performance Sir Henry Taylors enormous Philip Van Artevelde (1834) is an archetypal example of the genre, a work which, its author readily confessed was not intended for the stage and was properly an Historical Romance, cast in dramatic and rythmical form. Much the same might be said of two later and finer works Swinburnes Bothwell (1874) of which Edmund Gosse rightly observes that in bulk it one of the five-act Jidai-Mono or classic plays of eighteenth-century Japan, and it could only be performed, like an oriental drama, on successive nights, and The Dynasts (19038) of Thomas Hardy, the text of which occupies some 600 page s and which is described in its subtitle as An Epic-Drama of the War of Napoleon in cardinal Parts, Nineteen Acts, and One Hundred and Thirty Scenes.The requirements and possibilities of practical theatre have clearly been left far behind the divorce of the poet from the performers seems complete. Yet there were others who desire to maintain the relationship between poetry and theatre. The plays of Stephen Phillips, for example (eg. Herod, 1901 Ulysses, 1902 Paolo and Francesca, 1902 The King, 1912) have neither the psychological perception of Swinburne nor the historical insight of Hardy, but they did hold the stage with considerable success. Phillips had plenty of theatrical experience, having been an actor in the theatrical company of his cousin, Frank Benson. Phillips verse plays were produced by Beerbohm Tree, and they display a sophisticated command of theatrical effect and a wide-ranging, if almost wholly derivative, verse rhetoric which has, very occasionally, genuinely po etic moments.Elsewhere in the early years of the century there is to be found worthwhile work by a multitude of minor figures. Lawrence Binyons Attila (1907) and Ayuli (1923) Gordon Bottomleys King Lears Wife (1915) and Gruach (1923) John Masefields genuine Friday (1917), Esther (1922) and Tristan and Isolt (1927) John Drinkwaters Cophetua (1911) and Rebellion (1914) Arthur Symons The Death of Agrippina and Cleopatra in Judea (1916) T.Sturge Moores Daimonissa (1930) are all of interest and substance, but none can be said to make an overwhelming case for the genre, and all are, in varying degrees unable to escape from the long shadow of Shakespeare, especially as reinterpreted by the nineteenth-century.Under fresh influences French Symbolism and Japanese Noh theatre in particular verse drama began to explore new possibilities. Gordon Bottomleys later works such as Fire at Callart (1939) showed an awareness of the possibilities offered by the model of the Noh. Yeats, of course, h ad more fully explored such possibilities in works such as At the Hawks Well, The Only Jealousy of Emer, The ideate of the Bones and Calvary (composed c.1915-20), insofar as they were the means of liberation from the obligations of a naturalistic theatre. Verse, music, ritual and dance were woven into a complementary whole. (Irish successors to yeats include capital of Texas Clarke, whose verse plays have been performed by the Abbey Theatre, the Cambridge festival Theatre and others). In later plays such as The Hernes Egg (1935) and Purgatory (1938) evolves a personal and convincing idiom (both verbally and theatrically) for verse drama. These are superficially simple, but metaphysically profound works, both verbally exciting and theatrically striking.Elsewhere in Europe, the work of Gabriele DAnnunzio (eg. La citt morta, 1898 Francesca da Rimini, 1901 La figlia di Iorio, 1904) and Hugo von Hofmannsthal (eg. Jedermann, 1912 Das grosse Salzburger Welttheater, 1922) was bearing eloqu ent testimony to the continuing potential of the genre. In France Claudel was creating a series of verse plays upon religious and philosophic themes, whose intense lyricism and startling imagery for long went without full appreciation (eg. Partage de midi, 1906 Le pain dur, 1918 Le Soulier de satin, 1928-9). Other French twentieth-century verse-dramas include works by Char, Csaire and Cocteau, but the poetic qualities which characterise much that has been most striking in modern French drama have more generally found expression in prose plays rather than verse plays as, for example, in the work of Giradoux, Anouilh, Beckett, Ionesco and Vian. In Spain, Lorca mixes verse and prose in his plays.In Britain the 1930s saw a new generation of poets whose experiments did much to broaden the hold in terms both of form and content of verse drama. The Dog Beneath the Skin (1936) and The Ascent of F.6 (1937) were collaborations by W.H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood which brought a fresh wit and intellectuality, a new radicalism of social comment and contemporary relevance, to the genre. T.S.Eliots plays notably Murder in the Cathedral(1935) and The Family Reunion (1939) offered persuasive instances of how verse might, for the dramatist, be the means by which one could get at the permanent and universal rather than the merely ephemeral and naturalistic. Murder in the Cathedral was written for performance in Canterbury Cathedral, while The Family Reunion was composed for the commercial theatre. Theidioms of the two plays are, therefore, necessarily very different taken together the two offer a promise not wholly fulfilled by Eliots later plays, such as The Cocktail Party (1950), The Confidential Clerk (1953) and The Elder Statesman (1958). In these later plays the verse lacks the confidence to be genuinely poetic the linguistic intensity of the pre-war plays gives way to something far more prosaic. Murder in the Cathedral is, in part, striking for its mixture of v erse forms and idioms the Auden and Isherwood collaborations drew on the techniques of the music hall, the pantomime and the revue.From the 1930s onwards verse dramas have continued to be composed in Britain (and America), many of them works of considerable distinction. Most have been composed for performance outside the commercial theatre for churches and cathedrals, for universities or drama schools, or for some theatrical groups devoted to verse drama. In London, for example, the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill Gate, holding no more than 150, was opened by Ashley Dukes in 1933 and was home to E.Martin countenances Pilgrim Players. Browne was central to the revival of verse drama in the middle years of the century. He directed all of Eliots plays, including the first performance of Murder in the Cathedral. In the 1940s he directed, at the Mercury, several important verse plays both religious (eg. Ronald Duncans This Way to the Tomb, 1945 Anne Ridlers The darkness Factory, 1945) and comic (eg. Christopher Frys A Phoenix too Frequent, 1946 Donagh MacDonaghs Happy as Larry, 1947). Browne was also associated with the remarkable religious plays by Charles Williams (eg.Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury, 1936 seed of Adam, 1937 The House of the Octopus, 1945). Indeed, the variety of the verse drama produced in these years was very considerable.It includes the grave beauty of Williams plays and the fantastic gaiety of Happy as Larry, its language certified at every turn by the ballads of Dublin and the idiosyncrasies ofcolloquial Irish. In the plays of Christopher Fry there is a substantial body of work characterised, at its best, by both a vivacity (even exuberance) of language and a well-developed theatricality. Plays such as The Ladys Not for Burning (1948)), Venus Observed (1950), A relaxation of Prisoners (1951) and Curtmantle (1961) display a considerable range. Fry can be funny and moving, dazzling and beautiful. He can also be verbose and sentimental. Immen sely lucky critically and commercially at the beginning of his career, Frys reputation has suffered since. His best plays are both intelligent and entertaining, and will surely continue to find admirers. There is much that is rewarding, too, in the work of Ronald Duncan in Our Ladys Tumbler (1950), which has some fine choric writing, or in Don Juan (1953) Stephen disbursers Trial of a Judge (1938) is an intriguing experiment, with some highly effective moments. Louis MacNeices The Dark Tower (1946) is a rich andmysterious piano tuner parable play in verse. The tradition of verse drama has continued to attract writers, and they have continued to produce interesting plays such plays have, however, largely been seen (or read) only by specialised audiences. Few have found their way on to the commercial stage.Robert Gittings Out of this Wood (1955) Jonathan Griffins The Hidden King (1955) John Heath-Stubbs Helen in Egypt, (1958) Patric Dickinsons A Durable Fire (1962) the list migh t be extended considerably. More recent years have seen the production (or publication) of world-shattering verse plays by, amongst others, Peter Dale (The Cell, 1975 Sephe, 1981), Tony Harrison (eg. The Misanthrope, 1973 Phaedra Britannica, 1975 The Oresteia, 1981 The Trackers of Oxyrhynchus, 1990), Seamus Heaney (The Cure at Troy, 1990) and Francis Warner (eg. Moving Reflections, 1982 Living Creation, 1985 Byzantium, 1990). In America the tradition begun in the nineteenth century and continued by dramatists such as Josephine Preston Peabody (eg. Marlowe, 1901) and William Vaughn Moody (eg. The FireBringer, 1904), has had such later practitioners as Percy Mackaye (The Mystery of Hamlet, 1949), Maxwell Anderson (eg. Elizabeth the Queen, 1930 Winterset, 1935), Richard Eberhart (eg. The Visionary Farms, 1952 The Mad Musician, 1962) and Archibald MacLeish (eg. J.B., 1958 Herakles, 1967). Modern verse-drama has extended the formal possibilities of the genre far beyond the traditions of blank-verse tragedy. A wide range of verse forms, of free-verse, and of experiments derived from the techniques of revue and music-hall have played their part in the evolution of new and striking theatrical forms.Why have so many writers continued to be attracted to verse drama when, as Peter Dale observes, his chances of seeing his work performed are generally very slight? If, like Ibsen after Peter Gynt, the dramatists aim is to write the genuine, plain language spoken in real life (letter of 25 May 1883 quoted above) he will not, presumably, be attracted to verse as a likely medium. If, on the other hand, he feels with Yeats that the post-Ibsen prose of Shaws plays was devoid of all emotional implication, or if he shares the sentiments expressed by T.S.Eliot in his 1950 lecture on Poetry and Drama, it is more than probable that he will feel it necessary to turn to verseIt seems to me that beyond the nameable, classifiable emotions and motives of our conscious life when directed t owards action the part of like which prose drama is wholly adequate to express there is a fringe of indefinite extent, of feeling which we can only detect, so to speak, out of the corner of the eye and can never completely focus This peculiar range of sensibility can be expressed by dramatic poetry, at its moments of greatest intensity. At such moments wetouch the border of those feelings which only music can express. We can never emulate music, because to arrive at the condition of music would be the annihilation of poetry, and especially of dramatic poetry. Never the less, I have to begin with my eyes a kind of mirage of the perfection of verse drama, which would be a design of human action and words, such as to present at once the two aspects of dramatic and musical order To go as far in this direction as possible to go, without losing that contact with the ordinary everyday world with which drama must come to terms, seems to me the proper aim of dramatic poetry.Such thought s enable us to see modern verse drama as much more than that reaction against naturalism as which it has often been depicted. At its bestverse drama is too positive an aspiration for it to be adequately dumb merely as a reaction to the dominant idiom of the time. Much of what is best and most attractive in European theatre of the last 40 years might be described as post-naturalist, rather than merely anti-naturalist verse-drama has made, and should continue to make, important and distinctive contributions to post-naturalism. According to Francis Fergussan, a poetic drama is a drama in which you feel the characters are poetry and were poetry before they began to speak. Thus poetry and drama are inseparable. The playwright has to create a pattern to justify the poetic quality of the play and his poetry performs a double function. First, it is an action itself, so it must do what it says. Secondly, it makes explicit what is really happening. Eliot in his plays has puzzle out the prob lem regarding language, contentandversification.In the twentieth century, the inter-war period was an age suited to the poetic drama. There was a revival and some of the poets like W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot tried their reach in writing of poetic plays. This was a reaction against prose plays of G. B. Shaw, Galsworthy and others because these plays showed a certain lack of emotional touch with the moral issue of the age. W. B. Yeats did not like this irate criticism of the liberal idea of the nineteenth century at the hands of dramatists like G. B. Shaw. So he thought the drama of ideas was a failure to range the reality of the age. On the other hand, the drama of entertainment (artificial comedy) was becoming dry and uninteresting. It was under these circumstances that the modern playwrights like T. S. Eliot, J.M. Synge, W. B. Yeats, W. H. Auden, Stephen Spendor and so on have made the revival the poetic drama possible.The Choruses.A striking feature of Murder in the Cathedral is Eliots use of poetic choruses like the choruses in past Greek drama. The producer must decide the method which will project most effectively in the theatre these recurring choral passages, spoken by the Women of Canterbury. There are eight poetic rhapsodies or choruses, comprising approximately one fifth ofthe text.The poetry in the choruses invites all the imaginative enrichment which light, music and dance can give it.The chorus commenced in Greek drama, originally as a group of singers or chanters. Later, a Greek playwright called Thespis introduced an actor on the stage who held a dialogue with the leader of the chorus. Playwrights like Aeschylus and Sophocles added a second and a third actor to interact with the chorus.Finally, the chorus took on the role of participants in the action and interpreters of what is happening on stage. Eliot has based Murder in the Cathedral on the form of classic Greek tragedy. He uses the chorus to enhance the dramatic effect, to take part in the action of the play, and to perform the roles of observer and commentator. His chorus women represent the common people, who lead a life of hard work and struggles,no matter who rules. It is only their faith in God that gives them the strength to endure. These women are uneducated, country folk, who live close to the earth. As a result, they are in tune with the changing seasons and the moods of nature.At present, they have an intuition of death and evil. They fear that the new year, instead of bringing new hope, will bring greater suffering. The ternary priests have three different reactions to Beckets arrival. The first reacts with the fear of a calamity.The second is a little bold and says that there can hardly be any ease between a king who is busy in intrigue and an archbishop who is an equally proud, self-righteous man. The third priest feels that the wheel of time always move ahead, for good or evil. He believes that a wise man, who cannot change the course of the whee l, lets it move at its own pace.